Main description:

This translational text offers in-depth reviews of the metabolic and nutritional disorders that are prevalent in patients with renal disease. Chapter topics address the growing epidemic of obesity and metabolic syndrome. Each chapter integrates basic and clinical approaches, from cell biology and genetics to diagnosis, patient management and treatment. Chapters in sections 4-7 include new illustrative case reports, and all chapters emphasize key concepts with chapter-ending summaries. New features also include the latest National Kidney Foundation Clinical Practice Guidelines on Nutrition in Chronic Renal Failure, the most recent scientific discoveries and the latest techniques for assessing nutritional status in renal disease, and literature reviews on patients who receive continuous veno-venous hemofiltration with or without dialysis.

Contents:

Chapter 1. The Influence of Kidney Disease on Protein and Amino Acid Metabolism

Introduction

CKD Interrupts the Components of Protein Metabolism

Defining Muscle Wasting

Mechanisms of Muscle Wasting

The Ubiquitin-Proteasome System

Synergism of Proteolytic Pathways Causes Muscle Wasting in CKD

Proteolytic Activities Present in Muscles of Patients

Factors Triggering Muscle Wasting in CKD and Other Catabolic States

Myostatin and the Regulation of Muscle Protein Wasting

Myostatin in Muscle Increases in Catabolic Conditions

Beneficial Responses from Blocking Myostatin in Models of Muscle Catabolism

Blocking Myostatin can Suppress CKD-Induced Muscle Wasting

CKD Changes the Concentrations of Certain Amino Acids

Links Between Amino Acid and Protein Metabolism

Conclusion

References

Chapter 2. Carbohydrate Metabolism in Kidney Disease and Kidney Failure

Introduction

Insulin Resistance

Insulin Secretion

Insulin Clearance

Hypoglycemia

Carbohydrate Metabolism in Patients with Renal Replacement Therapy

Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus in Diabetics with CKD

Drug Management in Diabetics with CKD (Figure 2.1)

References

Chapter 3. Altered Lipid Metabolism and Serum Lipids in Kidney Disease and Kidney Failure

Introduction

Plasma Lipid and Lipoprotein Profile in CKD/ESRD Patients

The Nature and Mechanisms of CKD-Induced Lipid Abnormalities

The Nature and Mechanisms of Adverse Effects of Lipid Disorders in CKD

Treatment of CKD-Associated Dyslipidemia

Potential Adverse Effects of Statins

References

Chapter 4. Uremic Toxicity

Introduction

Uremic Symptoms and Signs

Toxic Effects of Uremic Plasma or Serum

Definition of a Uremic Toxin

Impact of Dialysis Treatment on Uremic Toxicity

Toxicity of Inorganic Substances in Uremia

Free Water-Soluble Low-Molecular-Weight Solutes

Protein-Bound Solutes

Middle Molecules

General Conclusions

Acknowledgement

References

Chapter 5. Inflammation in Chronic Kidney Disease

General Considerations

Multifactorial Causes of Inflammation in Chronic Kidney Disease

Inflammation as a Cause of Protein-Energy Wasting

Inflammation as a Catalyst of Other Risk Factors

Other Consequences of Inflammation

Monitoring Inflammation

Treatment of Inflammation in Chronic Kidney Disease

References

Chapter 6. Catalytic (Labile) Iron in Kidney Disease

Introduction

Definition of Catalytic (Labile) Iron and its Importance in Tissue Injury

Role of Catalytic Iron in Acute Kidney Injury

Gentamicin-Induced Mobilization of Iron From Renal Cortical Mitochondria

Evidence Suggesting a Role for Iron in Gentamicin-Induced Acute Renal Failure in Rats

Catalytic Iron in Chronic Kidney Disease (Table 6.3)

Catalytic Iron in Diabetic Nephropathy

Catalytic Iron in Chronic Kidney Disease

Concluding Comments

References

Chapter 7. Carbonyl Stress in Uremia

Introduction

Increased Age and other Protein Modifications

Carbonyl Stress

Clinical Consequences of Carbonyl Stress

Nutrition and Carbonyl Stress

References

Chapter 8. Effect of Acidemia and Alkalemia on Nutrition and Metabolism

Introduction

Acute Responses to Acidosis and Alkalosis

Comparing Effects of Acidemia to those of Starvation

Endocrine Responses to Acidemia

Calcium Metabolism

Protein Malnutrition

Metabolic Acidemia Stimulates the Ubiquitin/Proteasome Proteolytic Pathway

Clinical Implications of Acidemia for Protein Nutrition

References

Chapter 9. Prevention and Management of Cardiovascular Disease in Kidney Disease and Kidney Failure

Introduction

Cardiovascular Risk Factors

Management of CVD

Conclusion

References

Chapter 10. Assessment of Protein and Energy Nutritional Status

Introduction

Definition of Protein and Energy Wasting

Assessment of Protein Mass

Assessment of Protein and Energy Homeostasis

Summary and Recommendations

References

Chapter 11. Causes of Protein-Energy Wasting in Chronic Kidney Disease

Introduction

Causes of Pew in CKD

Pathophysiology of Pew in CKD

Endocrine and Hormonal Disorders

Effect of Volume Overload

Contribution of Co-Morbidities

Altered Protein Kinetics in CKD

Nutrient Loss During Dialysis

Inflammation: Agent Provocateur of Pew

Role of Metabolic Acidemia

Oxidative Stress: Other Key Pathways

Summary and Conclusion

References

Chapter 12. Protein-Energy Wasting as a Risk Factor of Morbidity and Mortality in Chronic Kidney Disease

Introduction

Pertinent Outcomes in Patients with CKD

Association of Measures of Nutrition with Outcomes

Nutrient Intake and Outcomes

Body Size, Body Composition and Outcomes

Laboratory Measures and Outcome

Nutritional Scoring Systems and Outcomes

Nutritional Interventions and Outcomes

Conclusions

References

Chapter 13. Effect of Nutritional Status and Changes in Protein Intake on Renal Function

Introduction

Role of Specific AA

Factors Mediating the Renal Response to Protein and Amino Acids

Humoral Mediators

Local Mediators

Intrinsic Renal Mechanisms

Effects of Nutritional Status or Protein Deprivation on Renal Function

Levels of Plasma Creatinine and Serum Urea Nitrogen in Patients with Protein-Energy Malnutrition

Concentration and Dilution of the Urine in Patients with Protein-Energy Malnutrition

Acid Excretion and Acid-Base Balance in Patients with Calorie-Protein Malnutrition

Effects of Chronic Protein-Energy Malnutrition on Renal Sodium Excretion

Effects of Maternal Nutrition on Renal Development

Protein Energy Wasting in Advanced Renal Disease

References

Chapter 14. Low Protein, Amino Acid and Ketoacid Diets to Slow the Progression of Chronic Kidney Disease and Improve Metabolic Control of Uremia

Introduction

Assessing the Progression of Chronic Renal Insufficiency

Protein Intake and Chronic Renal Insufficiency: Experimental Data

Dietary Protein Intake: Clinical Studies

Clinical Evidence of the Effects of Low Protein Diets

Conclusion

References

Chapter 15. Reducing Tryptophan Metabolites to Reduce Progression in Chronic Kidney Failure

Search for Uremic Toxins

Metabolism of Indoxyl Sulfate, a Tryptophan Metabolite

Protein Metabolite Theory as a Mechanism of CKD Progression

Indoxyl Sulfate Induces Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in the Kidney

Role of Organic Anion Transporters in Nephrotoxicity of Indoxyl Sulfate

Indoxyl Sulfate Reduces Klotho and Induces Senescence in the Kidney

Vascular Toxicity of Indoxyl Sulfate

Clinical Effects of AST-120

Conclusion

References

Chapter 16. Altering Serum Lipids to Reduce Progression of Chronic Kidney Disease

Kidney Disease and Dyslipidemia

Lipid Lowering and Pleiotropic Effects of Statins

Statins in Experimental Kidney Disease

Effects of Dyslipidemia and Statins on the Progression of Kidney Disease in Human Subjects

References

Chapter 17. Disorders of Phosphorus Homeostasis: Emerging Targets for Slowing Progression of Chronic Kidney Disease

Introduction

Role of Dietary Phosphorus Intake in Disturbances of Mineral Metabolism in CKD

Disorders of Phosphorus Homeostasis and Kidney Disease Progression

Dietary Phosphorus Restriction in CKD: Practical Considerations Moving Forward

Conclusions

References

Chapter 18. Alkalinization to Retard Progression of Chronic Kidney Failure

Epidemiology of Metabolic Acidosis in Kidney Disease

Mechanism of Acidosis in CKD

Animal Models of Kidney Damage With Acidosis

Animal Models of Treatment

Observational Studies in Humans

Recommendations

References

Chapter 19. Calcium, Phosphate, PTH, Vitamin D and FGF-23 in Chronic Kidney Disease

Introduction

Calcium Metabolism

Vitamin D

Phosphate Metabolism

Parathyroid Hormone

Fibroblast Growth Factor 23 (FGF-23)

Alterations in Mineral Metabolism in Ckd

Phosphate and Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)

Phosphate and Vascular Calcifications

Control of Serum Phosphate in CKD

Dietary Phosphorus Restriction

Inorganic Phosphorus and Food Additives

Dietary Phosphorus, Protein Intake and Phosphorus-Protein Ratio

Phosphorus Removal With Dialysis

Phosphate Binders

Therapy With Vitamin D Sterols

Calcimimetics

Conclusion

References

Chapter 20. Phosphate Metabolism and Fibroblast Growth Factor 23 in Chronic Kidney Disease

Introduction

Phosphate Metabolism in Health

Phosphate Metabolism Across the Spectrum of CKD

The Role of Phosphate and FGF-23 Excess in the Pathophysiology of CKD Outcomes

Therapeutic Approaches to Lowering Phosphate and FGF-23 Excess

Impact of Dietary Phosphate on Phosphate/FGF-23 Excess

Questions and Controversies

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Disclosures

References

Chapter 21. Vitamin D in Kidney Disease

Normal Vitamin D Metabolism

Prevalence and Etiology of Deficiency in The Vitamin D Axis in CKD

Implications

Interventions

Other Compounds

Therapeutic Considerations

Summary

Acknowledgement

References

Chapter 22. Nutritional Management of Water, Sodium, Potassium, Chloride, and Magnesium in Kidney Disease and Kidney Failure

Sodium and Chloride

Water

Potassium

Magnesium

References

Chapter 23. Trace Elements, Toxic Metals, and Metalloids in Kidney Disease

Introduction

Alterations in Essential Trace Elements in Patients With Kidney Disease

Alterations in Nonessential Trace Elements, Metals, and Metalloids in Patients With Kidney Disease

Trace Element Abnormalities in Renal-Specific Syndromes

Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches

Conclusions

References

Chapter 24. Vitamin Metabolism and Requirements in Renal Disease and Renal Failure

Introduction

Structure and Physiological Role of Vitamins

Vitamin Intake in Chronic Renal Disease

Vitamins Status in Chronic Renal Disease

Vitamins as Therapy for People with Kidney Disease

Recommendations for Vitamin Supplementation and Vitamin Therapy in Renal Diseases

Conclusions

References

Chapter 25. Nutrition and Anemia in End-stage Renal Disease

Introduction

Iron

Vitamin C

Vitamin D

Folic Acid

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Vitamin B12

Carnitine

Growth Hormone and Insulin-Like Growth Factor-I (IGF-I)

References

Chapter 26. Nutritional and Non-nutritional Management of the Nephrotic Syndrome

Introduction

Dietary Protein

Albumin Homeostasis in the Nephrotic Syndrome

Dietary Protein and Renal Injury

Effects of the Nephrotic Syndrome on Solid Tissue Proteins

Dietary Proteins as Potential Allergens Responsible for Renal Disease

Dietary Fat

The Effect of Altered Glomerular Permselectivity on Lipid Metabolism

Cardiovascular Effects of Hyperlipidemia in the Nephrotic Syndrome

Thromboembolic Complications

Effects of Lipids on Renal Disease

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

Derangements in Divalent Cation Metabolism in the Nephrotic Syndrome

Derangements in Salt and Water Metabolism in the Nephrotic Syndrome (Volume Homeostasis)

Recommendations for Nutritional and Non-Nutritional Treatment of the Nephrotic Syndrome

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 27. Nutrition and Blood Pressure

Introduction

Obesity and Energy Intake

Individual Nutrients, Miscellaneous Substances and Blood Pressure

Nutritional Management Strategies for The Prevention or Treatment of Hypertension

Health Enhancing Diets and Lifestyles

Long-Term Adherence and Blood Pressure Responses to Health Enhancing Lifestyles

Challenges to Diet and Lifestyle Approaches for Preventing and Treating Hypertension

Conclusions and Recommendations

Key Points

References

Chapter 28. Effect of Obesity and the Metabolic Syndrome on Incident Kidney Disease and the Progression to Chronic Kidney Failure

Introduction

Definitions of Obesity/Metabolic Syndrome

Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome as Risk Factors for Incident CKD

Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome as Risk Factors for Progression of CKD

Pathophysiology of Obesity on the Kidney

Effect of Weight Loss Interventions on Kidney Disease

Conclusion

References

Chapter 29. Nutritional and Metabolic Management of Obesity and the Metabolic Syndrome in the Patient with Chronic Kidney Disease

Introduction

Obesity-Related Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)

Obesity-Related Glomerulopathy

Measuring GFR

Metabolic Syndrome

Treatment of Obesity and Obesity-Related Kidney Disease

Bariatric Surgery (see also Chapter 28)

Metabolic Syndrome

References

Chapter 30. Bariatric Surgery and Renal Disease

Magnitude of Problem

Pathogenesis of Obesity

Clinical Manifestations

Medical Therapy

Role of Bariatric Surgery in Treatment of Morbid Obesity

Surgical Techniques of Bariatric Surgery (see Figure 30.1)

Outcomes of Bariatric Surgery

Renal Disease and Morbid Obesity

Pathogenesis of Renal Disease in Obesity

Role of Bariatric Surgery in Chronic Kidney Disease

Role of Bariatric Surgery in Transplant Candidates

Bariatric Surgery and Nephrolithiasis

Other Renal Effects of Bariatric Surgery

Future Research

References

Chapter 31. Nutritional and Metabolic Management of the Diabetic Patient with Chronic Kidney Disease and Chronic Renal Failure

Introduction

Glucose/Insulin Homeostasis

Value of Glycemic Control, and its Determination in CKD

Hypoglycemia

Diabetes/Bone and Mineral Metabolism

Dietary Protein Intake and Diabetic Kidney Disease

Salt Intake and Diabetic Kidney Disease

References

Chapter 32. Nutritional Management of Maintenance Hemodialysis Patients

Introduction

Factors Altering Nutrient Intake in Maintenance Hemodialysis Patients

Loss of Nutrients During Maintenance Hemodialysis Treatment

Importance of Pew and Diet as Patients Approach Esrd and Commence MHD

Assessment of Nutritional Status in MHD Patients

Acidemia and Protein Wasting

Goals of Nutritional Management of MHD Patients

Dietary Nutrient Requirements (see Table 32.3)

Management of Pew in MHD Patients

Treatment of Acute Catabolic Illness

Daily or Long Duration Hemodialysis and Nutritional Status

References

Chapter 33. Nutritional Management of End-Stage Renal Disease Patients Treated with Peritoneal Dialysis

Introduction

Type of Peritoneal Dialysis

Peritoneal Dialysis Solutions

Specific Effects of Peritoneal Dialysis on Nutritional Status and Metabolism

Dietary Recommendations for ESRD Patients Undergoing Peritoneal Dialysis

Protein-Energy Wasting in Peritoneal Dialysis Patients

Management of Protein-Energy Wasting in Patients Treated with Peritoneal Dialysis

References

Chapter 34. Nutritional Management of Kidney Transplant Recipients

Introduction

Anemia

Bone Disease

Diabetes Mellitus

Dyslipidemia

Hypertension

Food Safety

Hypophosphatemia

Overweight/Obesity

Malnutrition

Protein and Energy Requirements

Nutritional Management

Pretransplant Status and Posttransplant Outcome

Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 35. Nutritional Management of the Child with Kidney Disease

Introduction

Etiology of Protein-Energy Wasting

Assessment of Nutritional Status

Nutritional Requirements

Bone Mineral Metabolism

Acid-Base and Electrolytes

Vitamins and Micronutrients

Nutrition Management

References

Chapter 36. Nutritional Management of Acute Kidney Injury

Introduction

Metabolic Environment of the Patient with AKI

Metabolic Alterations Specifically Attributable to AKI

Metabolic Interventions of Controlling Catabolism

Clinical Studies on Protein Catabolism in AKI

Amino Acid/Protein Requirements in Patients with AKI

Carbohydrate Metabolism

Lipid Metabolism

Micronutrients and the Antioxidant System in AKI

Electrolytes

Metabolic and Nutritional Factors and the Prevention and Therapy of AKI

Impact of Renal Replacement Therapy (RRT) on Metabolism and Nutrient Balances

The Effect of Nutrition Status and Nutrient Supply on Prognosis

Practice of Clinical Nutrition in Patients with AKI

Oral Nutrition in Patients with AKI

Nutritional Support in Patients with AKI

Enteral Nutrition in AKI

Parenteral Nutrition in AKI

Complications of Nutritional Support

Monitoring of Nutrition Support in Patient with AKI

References

Chapter 37. Nutritional Management of Patients Treated with Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy

Introduction

Modes of CRRT

Generic Effects of CRRT on Energy Metabolism

Specific Effects on Nutrient Balance

Recommendations on Nutritional Therapy

Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 38. Anorexia and Appetite Stimulants in Chronic Kidney Disease

General Considerations

Prevalence of Anorexia, Methods of Assessment and Clinical Implications

Pathogenesis of Anorexia in CKD

Treatment of Anorexia in CKD

References

Chapter 39. Oral and Enteral Supplements in Kidney Disease and Kidney Failure

Introduction

Oral and Enteral (Tube Feeding) Nutrition in CKD Patients

Oral and Enteral Nutrition for Patients with Nephrotic Syndrome

Oral and Enteral Nutrition in Chronic Dialysis Patients

Oral and Enteral Nutrition in Acute Kidney Injury

Conclusions

References

Chapter 40. Intradialytic Parenteral Nutrition, Intraperitoneal Nutrition and Nutritional Hemodialysis

Introduction

Intradialytic Parenteral Nutrition (IDPN)

Randomized Prospective Controlled Trials of IDPN

Advantages and Disadvantages of IDPN

Indications for IDPN

IDPN in the United States

Nutritional Hemodialysis and Intraperitoneal Nutrition

References

Chapter 41. Therapeutic Use of Growth Factors in Renal Disease

Introduction

Treatment of Protein-Energy Wasting (PEW) in ESRD Patients

Therapeutic Use of Growth Factors in Renal Disease

Growth Factors in the Management of Wasting in Renal Disease

Conclusion

References

Chapter 42. Nutritional Prevention and Treatment of Kidney Stones

Introduction

Pathophysiology of Kidney Stone Formation

General Dietary Effects on Kidney Stones

Effect of Diet Based on Urinary Findings

Dietary Recommendations Based on Stone Type

Obesity and Kidney Stones

Melamine Stones

References

Chapter 43. Herbal Supplements in Patients with Kidney Disease

Introduction

Acute Kidney Injury

Chronic Kidney Disease

Five Herbals with Some Proven Efficacy

Transplant

Clinical Implications

References

Chapter 44. Drug-Nutrient Interactions in Renal Failure

Introduction

Effect of Food Intake on Drug Absorption

Effects of Nutrients on Drug Metabolism

Interactions of Food Supplements with Drugs

Drug-Induced Nutritional Deficiencies

Taurine and ACE-Inhibitor Effects

Nutrient Interactions with Oral Anticoagulants

Interactions of Calcineurin Inhibitors with Nutrients

Enteral Tube Feeding and Oral Drug Administration

References

Chapter 45. Exercise Training for Individuals with Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease

Introduction

Characteristics of Advanced CKD Patients

Value of Exercise and Physical Activity in Advanced CKD

Principles of Exercise Training

Patient Assessment

Components of the Exercise Training Prescription

Exercise Training Program Design for Patients with Advanced CKD

Components of the Exercise Training Session

Risks of Exercise in the Advanced CKD Patient

Urgent Need for Development of Renal Rehabilitation Programs

Summary

References

Chapter 46. Motivating the Kidney Disease Patient to Nutrition Adherence and Other Healthy Lifestyle Activities

Introduction

What is Motivational Interviewing?

What isn't Motivational Interviewing?

Principles

Handling Resistance

Empirical Support

Applications in Kidney Disease Management

Learning Motivational Interviewing

Dissemination of Motivational Interviewing

Future Research Directions in Kidney Disease Management

Conclusions

References

Color Plates

Index