Main description:

When I was asked by the late Professor Wolfgang Bargmann in 1973 to write the continuation of his review article on the epiphysis cerebri published in the present Handbuch Series in 1943 I felt greatly flattered and readily agreed, not knowing that it is virtually impossible for a single person to cover comprehensively the vast field of pineal research carried out over the last 35 years. Although I have done my best to include as much of the relevant work as possible (up to July 1979), I am constantly haunted by the references I have missed. I sincerely apologize for these omissions: first, to the authors of these papers, who, in addition to working on one of the most stony grounds of biological research, now may experience the additional frustration of not being quoted; secondly, to my fellow pinealogists or pinealogists-to-be, who may carry out painstaking experiments only to find that they have been done before, or who may be led astray because of lack of information. Nevertheless, I do hope that this monograph will fulfil its aim, namely to show how pineal research has progressed over the last 35 years and where it stands today. It is hoped that it will aid in planning relevant experiments and that it shows which approaches to the pineal problem would be better avoided.

Contents:

A. General Introduction.- B. The Mammalian Ephiphysis Cerebri.- I. Basic Biochemistry, Pharmacology and Physiology.- II. Gross Anatomy.- 1. General Aspects.- 2. Form, Size and Location.- a) Man.- b) Other Primates.- c) Cetacea.- d) Artiodactyla.- e) Hyracoidea.- f) Proboscidea.- g) Perissodactyla.- h) Lagomorpha.- i) Carnivora.- j) Rodentia.- k) Pholidota.- l) Xenarthra.- m)Chiroptera.- n) Tupaioidea.- o) Insectivora.- p) Marsupialia.- q) Monotremata.- 3. Weight and Volume.- a) Weight.- b) Volume.- 4. Epiphysectomy.- III. Development.- 1. Man.- 2. Rat.- 3. Mouse.- 4. Hamster.- 5. Rabbit.- 6. Cow and Sheep.- IV. General Histology.- 1. Survey of the Basic Structural Components.- 2. General Histological Pattern.- a) Man.- b) Other Mammals.- 3. Regional Differences.- V. The Pinealocyte.- 1. Light Microscopy.- a) Shape.- b) Staining Properties.- c) Application of Special Optical Methods.- d) Nucleus and Nucleolus.- e) Mitotic Activity.- f) Circadian Changes.- g) Pigments.- 2. Histochemistry.- a) Inorganic Constituents.- b) Carbohydrates.- ?) Glycogen.- ?) Sialic Acid.- ?) Ascorbic Acid.- ?) Mucopolysaccharides.- c) Lipids.- d) Amino Acids.- e) Biogenic Amines.- ?) Serotonin.- ?) Melatonin.- ?) Dopamine.- ?) Histamine.- f) Peptides.- g) Proteins and Glycoproteins.- h) Nucleic Acids.- ?) Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA).- ?) Ribonucleic Acid (RNA).- i) Enzymes.- ?) Oxidoreductases.- ?) Transferases.- ?) Hydrolases.- ?) Lyases.- ?) Conclusion.- 3. Ultrastructure.- a) General Aspects.- b) Pinealocyte Shape.- c) Perikaryon.- ?) Nucleus.- ?) Nucleolus.- ?) Cytoplasm.- d) Cell Processes.- ?) Preterminal Parts.- ?) Bulbous Endings.- e) Morphological Correlates of Secretory Products.- f) Different Types of Pinealocytes?.- g) Intercellular Relationships.- 4. Electrophysiological Properties.- VI. Glial Cells.- 1. Oligodendrocytes.- 2. Astrocytes and Interstitial Cells.- 3. Ependymal Cells.- VII. Innervation.- 1. Sympathetic Innervation.- a) Establishment of the Sympathetic Nature of the Sympathetic Nerve Fibres in the Epiphysis Cerebri.- b) Location of Sympathetic Nerve Fibres.- c) Enzyme Histochemistry.- d) Ultrastructure.- ?) Vesicle Content.- ?) Other Constituents.- ?) Developing Nerve Fibres.- e) Ultrastructural Relationships Between Sympathetic Nerve Fibres and Pinealocytes.- f) The Pinealocyte Deprived of Its Sympathetic Input.- g) Central Pathways Linking the Sympathetic Nerve Fibres with the Optic System.- 2. Commissural Fibres.- 3. Parasympathetic Innervation.- 4. Neurosecretory Fibres.- 5. The So-called Fetal Pineal Nerve.- 6. Intra-epiphyseal Ganglion Cells.- 7. Extra-epiphyseal Ganglion Cells.- VIII. Blood Supply.- 1. General Aspects.- 2. Arterial Supply and Venous Drainage.- 3. Development.- 4. Histochemistry of Blood Vessels.- 5. Ultrastructure of Capillaries.- 6. Perivascular Spaces.- 7. Pineal Blood-Brain Barrier.- IX. Other Constituents.- 1. Connective Tissue.- 2. Mast Cells.- 3. Concretions (Corpora Arenacea).- 4. Cysts.- 5. Melanophores.- 6. Striated Muscle.- X. The Transplanted and Cultured Epiphysis Cerebri.- 1. Transplantation.- 2. Tissue Culture.- XI. Functional Aspects.- 1. Melatonin Formation.- 2. Formation of Indoleamines Other than Melatonin and Related Substances.- 3. Presence of Peptides, Polypeptides and Proteins with Possible Hormonal Properties.- a) Vasotocin.- b) Hypothalamic Releasing Hormones.- c) Structurally Unidentified Presumptive Polypeptides and Proteins.- 4. Exogenous Factors Influencing Pineal Function.- a) Photic Influences.- ?) Pineal Morphology and Function Under Constant Illumination.- ?) Pineal Morphology and Function Under Constant Darkness.- ?) Effects of Short-term Photic Changes on Pineal Morphology and Function.- ?) Light Spectra and Intensities Most Effective in Influencing Pineal Function.- b) Ambient Temperature.- c) Noise and Vibration.- d) Olfactory Stimuli.- e) Nutritional Factors.- f) Isolation, Crowding, Captivity, Immobilization and Other Stressful Stimuli.- g) Irradiation.- h) Drug Action.- 5. Rhythms of Pineal Function.- a) Daily Rhythms.- b) Weekly Rhythm.- c) Annual Rhythms.- d) Other Rhythms.- 6. Onset of Pineal Function During Ontogenesis.- a) Rat.- b) Sheep.- 7. Pineal Morphology and Function During Puberty and in Old Age.- a) Puberty.- b) Old Age.- 8. Target Organs of Pineal Substances: General Aspects.- a) Release, Distribution and Fate of Pineal Substances.- b) Effects of Pineal Substances on Pineal Morphology and Function.- c) Effects of the Pineal Not Related to Any Particular Organ.- 9. Pineal-Brain Interactions.- a) Pathways.- b) Hypothalamus.- c) Extrahypothalamic Actions.- ?) Effects of Melatonin Administration in Humans.- ?) Sedation and Sleep.- ?) Locomotor Rhythms.- ?) Somatic Brain Effects.- ?) Behavioural Studies.- d) Neurological and Mental Diseases.- 10. Pineal-Pituitary Interactions.- a) Effects of Hypophysectomy on the Pineal.- b) Effects of Pinealectomy and Pineal Substances on Non-hormonal Parameters of the Pituitary.- ?) Pinealectomy.- ?) Pineal Substances.- c) Growth Hormone and Body Weight.- d) Prolaction and Milk Yield.- e) Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH).- f) Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH).- g) Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH).- h) Luteinizing Hormone (LH).- i) Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH).- 11. Pineal and Reproductive Organs.- a) General Considerations.- b) The Pineal as a Target Organ of Sex Hormones.- ?) Effects of Gonadectomy on the Pineal.- ?) Effects of Gonadotrophins on the Pineal.- ?) Effects of Oestrogens and Progesterone on the Pineal.- ?) Effects of Androgens and Anti-androgens on the Pineal.- c) Effects of Pinealectomy and Pineal Sympathectomy on Re- productive Organs.- ?) Prepuberal Animals.- ?) Adult Animals.- d) Effects of Pineal Substances on Reproductive Organs.- ?) Females.- ?) Males.- e) Pineal Function and the Oestrous Cycle.- f) Pineal Function in Seasonal Breeders.- g) Pineal Function During Pregnancy.- h) Maternal and Sexual Behaviours.- 12. Pineal-Adrenal Interrelationships.- a) Adrenal Cortex.- b) Adrenal Medulla.- 13. Pineal-Thyroid Interrelationships.- 14. Pineal-Parathyroid Interrelationships.- 15. Pineal, Islets of Langerhans and Carbohydrate Metabolism.- 16. Miscellaneous Effects of the Epiphysis Cerebri.- a) Adipose Tissue, Lipid Metabolism and Liver.- b) Food Intake, Water Intake, Alcohol Consumption and Electrolyte Metabolism.- c) Urinary System.- d) Blood Pressure and Haematocrit.- e) Retina and Harderian Gland.- f) Body Temperature.- g) Hair Growth, Hair Colour, Skin and Wound Healing.- h) Intestine.- i) Immune System.- j) Mast Cells.- k) Cancer and Other Diseases.- XII. Tumours of Pineal Tissue.- C. The Non-Mammalian Epiphysis Cerebri: Introductory Remarks.- D. The Pineal Complex in Lampreys and Fishes.- I. General Aspects.- II. Gross Anatomy of the Pineal Organ.- III. Development of the Pineal Complex.- IV. Light Microscopy of the Pineal Organ.- V. Histochemistry of the Pineal Organ.- VI. Ultrastructure of the Pineal Organ.- 1. Photoreceptor Cells.- a) Outer Segments.- b) Presence of Secretory Granules.- c) Synaptic Connections.- d) Miscellaneous Findings in Photoreceptors.- 2. Supporting Cells.- VII. Innervation of the Pineal Organ.- 1. Afferent Innervation.- 2. Efferent Fibres.- VIII. Blood Supply of the Pineal Organ.- IX. The Function of the Pineal Organ.- 1. Photoreception.- a) Electrophysiology.- b) Morphological Findings.- c) The So-called Pineal Window.- 2. Melatonin Secretion.- 3. Functional Significance of the Pineal Organ.- a) Regulation of Colour Change.- b) Phototaxis.- c) Locomotor Activity.- d) Gonadal Function.- e) Pituitary Function.- f) Thyroid Function.- g) Inter-renal Function.- h) Miscellaneous Effects.- X. Structure and Function of the Parapineal Organ.- E. The Pineal Complex in Amphibians.- I. Gross Anatomy and General Histology.- 1. The Pineal Organ Proper.- 2. Frontal Organ.- II. Development.- III. Ultrastructure and Histochemistry.- 1. Photoreceptor Cells.- 2. Supporting Cells.- 3. Intrapineal Nerve Cells.- 4. Axons Running Through the Lumen of the Pineal Organ.- IV. Nervous Connections of the Pineal Complex.- 1. The Frontal Nerve.- 2. The Pineal Tract.- 3. The Pineal Complex After Severing Its Nervous Connections.- V. Blood Supply.- VI. Functional Aspects.- 1. Light Perception.- 2. Secretion.- 3. Target Organs of the Pineal Complex.- F. The Pineal Complex in Reptiles.- I. Gross Anatomy.- II. Development.- III. Structure, Differentiation and Function of the Pineal Organ Proper.- 1. General Histological Pattern.- 2. Histogenesis.- 3. Ultrastructural Differentiation.- 4. Development of Indoleamine Metabolism.- 5. Histochemistry of the Adult Pineal Organ.- 6. Ultrastructure of the Intrinsic Cells of the Adult Pineal Organ.- a) Typical Photoreceptor Cells.- b) Secretory Rudimentary Photoreceptors.- c) Pinealocytes.- d) Supporting Cells.- 7. The Nervous Apparatus.- a) Afferent Fibres.- b) Efferent (Sympathetic) Innervation.- 8. The Blood Supply.- 9. Functional Aspects.- IV. The Parietal or Third Eye.- 1. Gross Anatomy.- 2. Organogenesis.- 3. Ultrastructure and Histochemistry.- a) Retina.- b) Lens.- c) Luminal Humour.- d) Capsule.- e) Cornea.- 4. Nervous Connections.- 5. The Function of the Parietal Eye.- G. The Avian Pineal Organ.- I. Gross Anatomy.- 1. Primary Pineal Organ.- 2. Secondary or Accessory Pineal Tissue.- 3. Pinealectomy.- II. Development.- 1. Organogenesis.- 2. Histogenesis.- 3. Ultrastructural Differentiation of Intrinsic Cells.- III. Light Microscopy.- IV. Histochemistry.- V. Ultrastructure of Intrinsic Cells.- 1. Pinealocytes of the "Receptor" Type.- 2. Secretory Pinealocytes of the Receptor Type Lacking Membranous Whorls.- 3. Pinealocytes Lacking Associations with a Lumen.- 4. Supporting Cells.- 5. Intrinsic Cells In Vitro.- VI. The Nervous Apparatus.- 1. Afferent Nervous Connections.- 2. Efferent Autonomic Innervation.- 3. Neurosecretory Neurons?.- VII. Vascularization.- VIII. Functional Aspects.- 1. Direct Photoreception?.- 2. Secretion.- a) Basic Biochemistry of Pineal Indoleamines.- b) Melatonin-Forming Capacity of the Avian Pineal Organ Compared to that in Other Vertebrates.- c) Extrapineal Sites of Melatonin Formation.- d) Mode of Secretion of Pineal Melatonin.- e) Circadian Changes of Indoleamines.- f) Seasonal Changes.- g) Sex Differences.- h) Onset of Secretion During Ontogenesis.- 3. Factors Influencing Pineal Structure and Function.- a) The Effects of Light and Darkness.- b) Other External Factors.- 4. Nervous Pathways and Chemical Substances Regulating Pineal Function in Birds as Compared with Mammals.- 5. The Effects of Pineal Substances on Avian Pineal Structure and Function.- 6. Possible Target Organs of Pineal Substances.- a) Brain.- ?) Regulation of Circadian Locomotor Rhythms.- ?) Other Brain Functions.- b) Pituitary.- c) Gonads.- d) Thyroid.- e) Adrenals.- f) Miscellaneous Observations.- H. Epilogue.- References.- Appendix to References: Review Articles Not Mentioned in the Text.- Author Index.