Main description:

The remarkable development of molecular biology has had its counterpart in an impressive growth of a segment of biology that might be described as atomic biology. The past several decades have witnessed an explosive growth in our knowledge of the many elements that are essential for life and maintenance of plants and animals. These essential elements include the bulk elements (hydro gen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur), the macrominerals (sodium, potas sium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, and phosphorus), and the trace elements. This last group includes the ultra trace elements and iron, zinc, and copper. Only the ultratrace elements are featured in this book. Iron has attracted so much research that two volumes are devoted to this metal-The Biochemistry of Non-Heme Iron by A. Bezkoravainy, Plenum Press, 1980, and The Biochemistry of Heme Iron (in preparation). Copper and zinc are also represented by a separate volume in this series. The present volume begins with a discussion of essentiality as applied to the elements and a survey of the entire spectrum of possible required elements.

Contents:

1. A Survey of the Essential Biochemical Elements.- 1.1 Essentiality.- 1.1.1 Stimulatory Metals.- 1.1.2 Evolution of the Essential Trace Elements.- 1.2 A Survey of the Biochemistry of the Elements.- 1.2.1 The Nonmetals: Bromine.- 1.2.2 The Metals.- 1.2.3 Pretransition Metals.- 1.2.4 The Alkali Metals; Lithium, Rubidium.- 1.2.5 The Alkaline Earth Metals; Beryllium, Strontium, Barium.- 1.2.6 Remaining Pre-transition Metals.- 1.2.7 The Transition Metals.- 1.2.8 The Post-transition Metals.- 1.2.9 Lanthanides and Actinides.- 1.3 Mechanism of Action of the Essential Ultratrace Elements.- 1.4 Summary.- General References.- Specific References.- 2. The Discovery of the Essential Trace Elements: An Outline of the History of Biological Trace Element Research.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Classification of the Bioelements.- 2.3 The Concept of Essentiality.- 2.4 Trace Element Discoveries from 1925 to 1956.- 2.4.1 Copper.- 2.4.2 Manganese.- 2.4.3 Zinc.- 2.4.4 Cobalt.- 2.4.5 Molybdenum.- 2.5 Discoveries from 1956 to 1978: The Era of Klaus Schwarz.- 2.5.1 Selenium.- 2.5.2 Chromium.- 2.5.3 Tin.- 2.5.4 Vanadium.- 2.5.5 Fluoride.- 2.5.6 Silicon.- 2.5.7 Nickel.- 2.5.8 Lead, Cadmium, and Arsenic.- 2.6 Current Trends and Problems.- References.- 3. Iodine.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Chemistry of Iodine and Iodoamino Acids.- 3.2.1 Properties of Iodine.- 3.2.2 Iodine Isotopes.- 3.2.3 Important Chemical and Biochemical Reactions of Iodine.- 3.2.4 Iodotyrosines and Iodothyronines.- 3.3 Iodine Metabolism.- 3.3.1 Iodine Absorption, Evolution, and Thyroid Hormone Biosynthesis.- 3.3.2 Thyroid Hormones in Blood.- 3.3.3 Thyroid Hormones in Peripheral Tissues.- 3.3.4 Iodine Deficiency.- 3.3.5 Iodine Toxicity.- 3.4 Mechanism of Action of Thyroid Hormones.- 3.4.1 General and Cellular Effects.- 3.4.2 Structure-Activity Relationships.- 3.5 Summary.- References.- 4. Fluorine.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Fluoride in Cells and Tissues.- 4.2.1 Mineralized Tissues.- 4.2.2 Cells and Soft Tissues.- 4.2.3 Extracellular Fluid.- 4.3 Fluoride Deficiency and Function.- 4.3.1 Deficiency.- 4.3.2 Functions of Fluoride.- 4.4 Metabolism and Toxicity of Fluoride.- 4.4.1 Metabolism.- 4.4.2 Toxicity.- 4.5 Summary.- References.- 5. Manganese.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Manganese Concentration in Animal Tissues.- 5.3 Metabolism of Manganese.- 5.3.1 Absorption.- 5.3.2 Transport and Tissue Distribution.- 5.3.3 Excretion.- 5.4 Biochemistry of Manganese.- 5.4.1 Manganese Chemistry.- 5.4.2 Manganese as a Cofactor and in Metalloenzymes.- 5.4.3 Manganese and Carbohydrate Metabolism.- 5.4.4 Manganese and Lipid Metabolism.- 5.4.5 Manganese and Brain Function.- 5.5 Manganese Nutrition.- 5.5.1 Manganese Deficiency.- 5.5.2 Genetic Interactions and Manganese Metabolism.- 5.5.3 Human Requirements.- 5.5.4 Manganese Content of Foods.- 5.6 Manganese Toxicity.- 5.7 Manganese in Relation to Immunocompetence and Cancer.- 5.8 Summary.- References.- 6. Cobalt.- 6.1 Introduction and History.- 6.2 Cobalt and Its Compounds in Cells and Tissues.- 6.2.1 Cobalt in Soils.- 6.2.2 Cobalt in Plants.- 6.2.3 Cobalt in Animals.- 6.3 Cobalt Deficiency and Function.- 6.3.1 Cobalt in Animal Nutrition.- 6.3.2 Cobalt in Human Nutrition.- 6.4 Metabolism and Toxicity of Cobalt.- 6.4.1 Effect of Cobalt on Plants.- 6.4.2 Effect of Cobalt on Animals.- 6.4.3 Effect of Cobalt on Microorganisms.- 6.4.4 Toxicity of Cobalt.- 6.5 Conclusion.- References.- 7. Molybdenum.- 7.1 Introduction and History.- 7.2 Molybdenum and Its Compounds in Cells and Tissues.- 7.2.1 Molybdenum-Containing Enzymes.- 7.2.2 The Molybdenum Cofactor.- 7.2.3 General Aspects of Molybdenum Biochemistry.- 7.3 Nutritional Aspects of Molybdenum.- 7.3.1 Molybdenum in the Diet.- 7.3.2 Molybdenum Deficiency.- 7.3.3 Molybdenum Toxicity.- 7.4 Conclusion.- 7.5 Summary.- References.- 8. Chromium.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Chromium: Physical and Chemical Properties.- 8.3 Biologically Active Chromium.- 8.4 Absorption and Transport of Chromium.- 8.5 Chromium Occurrence in Blood, Tissues, and Hair.- 8.5.1 Blood.- 8.5.2 Tissues.- 8.5.3 Hair.- 8.6 Chromium Excretion.- 8.7 Functions of Chromium and Signs of Chromium Deficiency.- 8.8 Factors Affecting Chromium Metabolism.- 8.9 Chromium and Stress.- 8.10 Dietary Requirements of Chromium.- 8.11 Effects of Chromium Supplementation.- 8.12 Toxicity of Chromium.- 8.13 Summary.- References.- 9. Selenium.- 9.1 Introduction and History.- 9.2 Selenium and its Compounds in Cells and Tissues.- 9.2.1 Low Molecular Weight Compounds.- 9.2.2 Macromolecular Weight Compounds.- 9.3 Selenium Deficiency and Function.- 9.3.1 Dietary Liver Necrosis and Factor 3.- 9.3.2 Hepatosis Dietetica.- 9.3.3 Nutritional Muscular Dystrophy.- 9.3.4 Exudative Diathesis.- 9.3.5 Pancreatic Regeneration.- 9.3.6 Mulberry Heart Disease.- 9.3.7 Reproductive Problems.- 9.3.8 Myopathy of the Gizzard.- 9.3.9 Growth.- 9.3.10 Selenium-Responsive Unthriftiness of Sheep and Cattle.- 9.3.11 Periodontal Diseases of Ewes.- 9.3.12 Encephalomalacia.- 9.4 Metabolism and Toxicity of Selenium.- 9.4.1 Absorption.- 9.4.2 Excretion.- 9.4.3 Placental Transfer.- 9.4.4 Mechanism of the Antioxidant Action of Selenium.- 9.4.5 Interactions of Selenium with Other Substances.- 9.4.6 Toxicity of Selenium.- 9.5 Summary.- References.- 10. Vanadium.- 10.1 Introduction and History.- 10.1.1 Discovery and History.- 10.1.2 Occurrence and Distribution.- 10.1.3 Nuclear and Chemical Characteristics.- 10.1.4 Essentiality.- 10.2 Vanadium in Tissues.- 10.2.1 Vanadium in Plants and Plant Products.- 10.2.2 Vanadium in Tunicates, Crustaceans, Shellfish, and Fish.- 10.2.3 Human Intakes of Vanadium.- 10.2.4 Vanadium Levels in Human Beings.- 10.3 Vanadium Deficiency and Function.- 10.3.1 Growth.- 10.3.2 Reproduction.- 10.3.3 Nutritional Edema.- 10.3.4 Manic-Depressive Illness.- 10.3.5 Dental Caries.- 10.3.6 Inotropic Effects of Vanadium.- 10.3.7 Vanadium and Renal Function.- 10.3.8 Vanadium and Glucose Metabolism.- 10.3.9 Vanadium and Lipid Metabolism.- 10.3.10 Vanadium and ATPases.- 10.3.11 Additional Effects of Vanadium.- 10.4 Vanadium Metabolism.- 10.4.1 Absorption of Vanadium.- 10.4.2 Tissue Distribution of Vanadium.- 10.4.3 Effects of Hormones on Vanadium Metabolism.- 10.4.4 Excretion of Vanadium.- 10.5 Vanadium Toxicity.- 10.5.1 Factors Affecting Toxicity of Vanadium.- 10.5.2 Toxicity in Chicks, Rats, and Sheep.- 10.5.3 Toxicity in Human Beings.- 10.6 Summary.- References.- 11. Silicon.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.1.1 Discovery and History.- 11.1.2 Occurrence and Distribution.- 11.1.3 Chemistry.- 11.1.4 Essentiality.- 11.2 Silicon in Tissues.- 11.2.1 Primitive Organisms.- 11.2.2 Higher Plants.- 11.2.3 Animals and Man.- 11.3 Silicon Deficiency and Functions.- 11.3.1 Growth and Development.- 11.3.2 Calcification.- 11.3.3 Bone Formation.- 11.3.4 Cartilage and Connective Tissue Formation.- 11.3.5 Connective Tissue Matrix.- 11.3.6 Enzyme Activity.- 11.3.7 Connective Tissue Cellular Component.- 11.3.8 Structural Component.- 11.3.9 Aging.- 11.4 Metabolism.- 11.4.1 Absorption.- 11.4.2 Transport.- 11.4.3 Excretion.- 11.4.4 Interaction with Molybdenum.- 11.4.5 Enzyme Interaction.- 11.5 Toxicity.- 11.5.1 Pneumoconioses in Man.- 11.5.2 Silicosis.- 11.5.3 Asbestosis.- 11.5.4 Renal Toxicity.- 11.6 Summary.- References.- 12. Nickel.- 12.1 Introduction and History.- 12.2 Nickel and Its Compounds in Cells and Tissues.- 12.3 Nickel Deficiency.- 12.4 Nickel Function.- 12.5 Biological Interactions between Nickel and Other Trace Elements.- 12.6 Nickel Metabolism and Toxicity.- 12.7 Summary.- References.- 13. Tin.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Tin in Cells and Tissues.- 13.2.1 Chemical Properties.- 13.2.2 Distribution in Mammalian Tissues.- 13.3 Deficiency and Function.- 13.4 Metabolism and Toxicity.- 13.4.1 Inorganic Tin.- 13.4.2 Organotin Compounds.- 13.5 Summary.- References.- 14. Arsenic.- 14.1 Introduction and History.- 14.2 Arsenic and Its Compounds in Cells and Tissues.- 14.3 Arsenic Deficiency and Interaction with Other Nutrients.- 14.4 Arsenic Function.- 14.5 Arsenic Metabolism.- 14.6 Arsenic Toxicity.- 14.7 Summary.- References.- 15. Cadmium.- 15.1 Introduction.- 15.1.1 Historical Perspectives and Properties of Cadmium.- 15.1.2 Metallothionein and Its Interactions with Cadmium.- 15.2 Chemistry of Cadmium: Biological Perspectives.- 15.2.1 General Chemical Properties of Cadmium.- 15.2.2 Biological Implications.- 15.3 Evidence for the Possible Essentiality of Cadmium.- 15.4 Metabolism of Cadmium.- 15.4.1 Absorption of Cadmium.- 15.4.2 Transport of Cadmium in Blood.- 15.4.3 Organ, Tissue, and Subcellular Distribution of Cadmium.- 15.4.4 Cadmium Excretion.- 15.5 Biochemical Effects of Cadmium.- 15.5.1 Nucleic Acid and Protein Synthesis.- 15.5.2 Induction of Thionein by Cadmium.- 15.5.3 Other Biochemical Effects of Cadmium.- 15.6 Summary.- References.- 16. Lead.- 16.1 Introduction and History.- 16.2 Metabolism of Lead.- 16.2.1 Occurrence and Intake.- 16.2.2 Absorption of Lead.- 16.2.3 Excretion of Lead.- 16.2.4 Transport and Distribution.- 16.2.5 Interactions.- 16.3 Lead Deficiency.- 16.4 Toxicity of Lead.- 16.4.1 Hematologic Effects of Toxic Lead Doses.- 16.4.2 Neurotoxic Effects of Lead.- 16.4.3 Renal Effects of Toxic Lead.- 16.4.4 Intranuclear Inclusion Body.- 16.4.5 Mutagenic, Mitogenic, and Teratogenic Effects of Lead.- 16.5 Conclusions.- References.- 17. Boron.- 17.1 Boron in Biology.- 17.1.1 Introduction.- 17.1.2 Criteria for Essentiality.- 17.1.3 Effect of Boron on the Growth of Organisms.- 17.1.4 Plant Evolution and an Essential Role for Boron.- 17.1.5 Boron Toxicity.- 17.1.6 Problems Associated with Studies of BoronMetabolism.- 17.1.7 10B (n, a) 7Li Nuclear Reaction.- 17.1.8 Therapeutic Uses for Boron and Organoborates in Medicine.- 17.2 Carbohydrate Metabolism.- 17.2.1 Boron Complexes.- 17.2.2 Sugar Translocation.- 17.2.3 Photosynthesis.- 17.2.4 Respiration.- 17.2.5 Starch.- 17.2.6 Cellulose and Cell Wall Glucans.- 17.2.7 Phenols.- 17.2.8 Lignin.- 17.2.9 Boron in Enzymic Reactions.- 17.2.10 Pollen Germination.- 17.2.11 Conclusions.- 17.3 Hormone Action.- 17.4 Membrane Structure and Function.- 17.5 Nucleic Acid Biosynthesis.- 17.6 Summary.- References.