Main description:

A Comprehensive Guide to Radiographic Sciences and Technology is a concise review of radiographic physics and imaging, perfect for students preparing for certification examinations such as the American Registry for Radiologic Technologists (ARRT). Aligned with the core radiographic science components of the current American Society of Radiologic Technologists (ASRT) curriculum, this up-to-date resource covers topics including radiation production and characteristics, imaging equipment, digital image acquisition and display, radiation protection, basic principles of computed tomography, and quality control.

The guide begins with an overview of the radiographic sciences and technology, followed by detailed descriptions of the major components of digital radiographic imaging systems. Subsequent sections discuss the essential aspects of diagnostic radiography and computed tomography, including basic physics, imaging modalities, digital image processing, quality control, imaging informatics, and basic concepts of radiobiology and radiation protection. Throughout the book, concise chapters summarise the critical knowledge required for effective and efficient imaging of the patient while emphasising the important, yet commonly misunderstood, relationship between radiation dose and image quality. Written by an internationally recognised expert in the field, this invaluable reference and guide:

Provides easy access to basic physics, techniques, equipment, and safety guidelines for radiographic imaging
Reflects the educational requirements of the American Society of Radiologic Technologists (ASRT), the Canadian Association of Medical Radiation Technologists (CAMRT), the College of Radiographers (CoR), and other radiography societies and associations worldwide
Offers a range of pedagogical tools such as chapter outlines, key term definitions, bulleted lists, practical examples, and links to current references and additional resources
Includes charts, diagrams, photographs, and x-ray images

A Comprehensive Guide to Radiographic Sciences and Technology is required reading for students in programs using ionizing radiation, those preparing for the ARRT and other global radiography certification exams, and practising technologists wanting to refresh their knowledge.

Contents:

Foreword xiii

Preface xiv

Acknowledgments xvii

Section 1: Introduction

Chapter 1 Radiographic sciences and technology: an overview 3

RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGING SYSTEMS: MAJOR MODALITIES AND COMPONENTS 4

RADIOGRAPHIC PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY 5

Essential physics of diagnostic imaging 5

Digital radiographic imaging modalities 5

Radiographic exposure technique 6

Image quality considerations 6

Computed tomography - physics and instrumentation 7

Quality control 8

Imaging informatics at a glance 9

RADIATION PROTECTION AND DOSE OPTIMIZATION 10

Radiobiology 10

Radiation protection in diagnostic radiography 10

Technical factors affecting dose in radiographic imaging 11

Radiation protection regulations 12

Optimization of radiation protection 13

Bibliography 13

Chapter 2 Digital radiographic imaging systems: major components 14

FILM-SCREEN RADIOGRAPHY: SHORT REVIEW OF PRINCIPLES 14

DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY MODALITIES: MAJOR SYSTEM COMPONENTS 18

Computed radiography 19

Flat-panel digital radiography 19

Digital fluoroscopy 19

Digital mammography 21

Computed tomography 21

IMAGE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 22

Picture archiving and communication system 23

References 23

Section 2: Basic Radiographic Sciences and Technology

Chapter 3 Basic physics of diagnostic radiography 27

STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 28

Nucleus 28

Electrons, quantum levels, binding energy, electron volts 28

ENERGY DISSIPATION IN MATTER 29

Excitation 29

Ionization 30

TYPES OF RADIATION 30

Electromagnetic radiation 31

Particulate radiation 32

X-RAY GENERATION 32

X-RAY PRODUCTION 32

Properties of x-rays 33

Origin of x-rays 33

Characteristic radiation 33

Bremsstrahlung radiation 34

X-RAY EMISSION 34

X-RAY BEAM QUANTITY AND QUALITY 35

Factors affecting x-ray beam quantity and quality 36

INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER 39

Mechanisms of interaction in diagnostic x-ray imaging 40

RADIATION ATTENUATION 43

Linear attenuation coefficient 43

Mass attenuation coefficient 43

Half value layer 44

RADIATION QUANTITIES AND UNITS 45

Bibliography 45

Chapter 4 X-ray tubes and generators 46

PHYSICAL COMPONENTS OF THE X-RAY MACHINE 47

COMPONENTS OF THE X-RAY CIRCUIT 48

The power supply to the x-ray circuit 49

The low-voltage section control console) 49

The high-voltage section 50

TYPES OF X-RAY GENERATORS 51

Three-phase generators 52

High-frequency generators 52

Power ratings 53

THE X-RAY TUBE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 53

Major components 54

SPECIAL X-RAY TUBES: BASIC DESIGN FEATURES 57

Double-bearing axle 58

HEAT CAPACITY AND HEAT DISSIPATION CONSIDERATIONS 58

X-RAY BEAM FILTRATION AND COLLIMATION 58

Inherent and added filtration 59

Effects of filtration on x-ray tube output intensity 59

Half-value layer 60

Collimation 60

References 60

Chapter 5 Digital image processing at a glance 61

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 61

Definition 62

Image formation and representation 62

Processing operations 63

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGITAL IMAGES 63

GRAY SCALE PROCESSING 64

Windowing 67

CONCLUSION 69

References 69

Chapter 6 Digital radiographic imaging modalities: principles and technology 70

COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY 71

Essential steps 71

Basic physical principles 71

Response of the IP to radiation exposure 73

The standardized exposure indicator 73

FLAT-PANEL DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY 76

What is FPDR? 76

Types of FPDR systems 76

Basic physical principles of indirect and direct flat-panel detectors 76

The fill factor of the pixel in the flat-panel detector 78

Exposure indicator 79

Image quality descriptors for DR systems 79

Continuous quality improvement for DR systems 79

DIGITAL FLUOROSCOPY 80

Digital fluoroscopy modes 80

II-Based digital fluoroscopy characteristics 80

Flat-panel digital fluoroscopy characteristics 83

DIGITAL MAMMOGRAPHY 85

Screen-film mammography - basic principles 85

Full-field digital mammography -major elements 86

DIGITAL TOMOSYNTHESIS AT A GLANCE 87

Imaging system characteristics 87

Synthesized 2D digital mammography 89

References 90

Chapter 7 Image quality and dose 91

THE PROCESS OF CREATING AN IMAGE 92

IMAGE QUALITY METRICS 93

Contrast 93

Contrast resolution 94

Spatial resolution 96

Noise 98

Contrast-to-noise ratio 101

Signal-to-noise ratio 101

ARTIFACTS 102

IMAGE QUALITY AND DOSE 103

Digital detector response to the dose 103

Detective quantum efficiency 104

References 105

Section 3: Computed Tomography: Basic Physics and Technology

Chapter 8 The essential technical aspects of computed tomography 109

BASIC PHYSICS 110

Radiation attenuation 111

TECHNOLOGY 116

Data acquisition: principles and components 117

Image reconstruction 118

Image display, storage, and communication 120

MULTISLICE CT: PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY 121

Slip-ring technology 122

X-ray tube technology 122

Interpolation algorithms 123

MSCT detector technology 124

Selectable scan parameters 125

Isotropic CT imaging 127

MSCT image processing 127

IMAGE POSTPROCESSING 128

Windowing 128

3-D image display techniques 129

IMAGE QUALITY 130

Spatial resolution 130

Contrast resolution 131

Noise 131

RADIATION PROTECTION 131

CT dosimetry 132

Factors affecting patient dose 132

Optimizing radiation protection 133

CONCLUSION 134

References 134

Section 4: Continuous Quality Improvement

Chapter 9 Fundamentals of quality control 139

INTRODUCTION 139

DEFINITIONS 140

ESSENTIAL STEPS OF QC 141

QC RESPONSIBILITIES 142

STEPS IN CONDUCTING A QC TEST 142

THE TOLERANCE LIMIT OR ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA 143

PARAMETERS FOR QC MONITORING 145

Major parameters of imaging systems 145

QC TESTING FREQUENCY 145

TOOLS FOR QC TESTING 146

THE FORMAT OF A QC TEST 146

PERFORMANCE CRITERIA/TOLERANCE LIMITS FOR COMMON QC TESTS 147

Radiography 147

Fluoroscopy 150

REPEAT IMAGE ANALYSIS 151

Corrective action/Reasons for rejection 151

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY QC TESTS FOR TECHNOLOGISTS 152

The ACR CT accreditation phantom 152

The ACR action limits for tests done by technologists 153

Artifact evaluation 155

References 156

Section 5: PACS and Imaging Informatics

Chapter 10 PACS and imaging informatics at a glance 159

INTRODUCTION 159

PACS CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES 160

Definition 160

Core technical components 160

IMAGING INFORMATICS 163

Enterprise imaging 164

Cloud computing 164

Big data 164

Artificial intelligence 164

Machine learning 165

Deep learning 165

APPLICATIONS OF AI IN MEDICAL IMAGING 165

AI in CT image reconstruction 166

Ethics of AI in radiology 166

References 166

Section 6: Radiation Protection

Chapter 11 Basic concepts of radiobiology 171

WHAT IS RADIOBIOLOGY? 172

BASIC CONCEPTS OF RADIOBIOLOGY 173

Generalizations about radiation effects on living organisms 173

Relevant physical processes 174

Radiosensitivity 175

Dose-response models 176

Radiation interactions in tissue: target theory, direct and indirect action 177

DNA and chromosome damage 178

EFFECTS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE TO THE TOTAL BODY 179

Hematopoietic of bone marrow syndrome 180

Gastrointestinal syndrome 180

Central nervous system (CNS) syndrome 180

DETERMINISTIC EFFECTS 180

STOCHASTIC EFFECTS 181

Tissue effects 181

Life-span shortening 181

Radiation-induced cancers 181

Hereditary effects 182

RADIATION EXPOSURE DURING PREGNANCY 183

References 183

Chapter 12 Technical dose factors in radiography, fluoroscopy, and CT 185

DOSE FACTORS IN DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY 186

The x-ray generator 186

Exposure technique factors 187

X-ray beam filtration 187

Collimation and field size 188

The SID and SSD 188

Patient thickness and density 188

Scattered radiation grid 189

The sensitivity of the image receptor 190

DOSE FACTORS IN FLUOROSCOPY 190

Fluoroscopic exposure factors 190

Fluoroscopic equipment factors 191

CT RADIATION DOSE FACTORS AND DOSE OPTIMIZATION CONSIDERATIONS 194

Dose distribution in the patient 194

CT dose metrics 195

Factors affecting the dose in CT 196

Dose optimization overview 197

References 198

Chapter 13 Essential principles of radiation protection 200

INTRODUCTION 201

WHY RADIATION PROTECTION? 201

Categories of data from human exposure 201

Radiation dose-risk models 201

Summary of biological effects 202

Radiation protection organizations/reports 202

OBJECTIVES OF RADIATION PROTECTION 203

RADIATION PROTECTION PHILOSOPHY 203

Justification 203

Optimization 204

Dose limits 204

Personal actions 205

Time 205

Shielding 206

Distance 206

RADIATION QUANTITIES AND UNITS 206

Sources of radiation exposure 207

Quantities and units 207

PERSONNEL DOSIMETRY 209

OPTIMIZATION OF RADIATION PROTECTION 211

Regulatory and guidance recommendations 211

Diagnostic reference levels (DRLs) 212

Gonadal shielding: past considerations 213

X-ray room shielding 214

CURRENT STATE OF GONADAL SHIELDING 215

References 215

Index 217